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Adopting Christianity at the end of the 10th century, the Poles established a kingdom in 1025.  In 1386, Poland and Lithuania were united under a single ruler, and victories over the Teutonic Knights in the 15th century brought additional territories under Polish control.  The nobility exercised extensive privileges in the Polish-Lithuania commonwealth and, with the death of the last Jagiełłonian king in 1572, they secured the right to elect his successor.
Although Polish troops captured Moscow in 1610, and defeated the Ottomans outside the gates of Vienna in 1683, Poland had embarked on a long period of decline.  Power struggles over the Polish throne led to the War of Polish Succession in 1733, and Russian troops placed their own candidate on the throne in 1764.  Russia, Prussia, and Austria helped themselves to large portions of Polish territory in 1772, and a second partition in 1793 further reduced Polish territory.
A final partition in 1795 ended Polish independence.  The Congress of Vienna reestablished a Polish kingdom within the Russian empire in 1815, but periodic nationalist revolts prompted increasing repression by Russian authorities.		After World War I, the Poles established an independent republic, including German territories granted by the Treaty of Versailles.  Wars with the newly-established USSR and plebiscites brought additional territory in Belarus, Ukraine, and Silesia.
The invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in September 1939 launched World War II.  Meanwhile, Soviet troops invaded from the east, deporting or murdering thousands of Poles.  The Nazis systematically exterminated millions more, particularly Jews, in ghettos and concentration camps such as Auschwitz and Treblinka.  After Soviet forces drove the Nazis from Poland in early 1945, Poland was granted additional German territory, but ceded other areas to the USSR.
Communists soon wrested control of the Polish government and, apart from unrest in 1956 and 1968, Poland remained a staunch Soviet satellite throughout the Cold War.  During the 1970s, Poland restored relations with West Germany, hosted US presidential visits, and witnessed the election of a Pole as Pope John Paul II.  Nationwide strikes led to the imposition of martial law in 1981, and by 1989 the Solidarity movement had joined the government.  Despite a shaky start to political and economic reforms, Poland has successfully made the transition to a free-market democracy.  It joined NATO in 1999, and the European Union in 2004.

	Warsaw (Warszawa)
	Founded by the Dukes of Mazovia in 1226, Warsaw first achieved prominence in 1339 as the venue of papal trial.  Developing quickly, much of the city was rebuilt in brick after a 1431 fire.  Beginning in 1578, Polish kings were elected in Warsaw, and the city became the capital of Poland in 1596.

Warsaw prospered in the 17th and 18th centuries, despite the decline in Polish fortunes, and occasional occupations by Swedish and Russian troops.
	Warsaw passed into Prussian hands after the third Polish partition, but Napoleon reestablished an independent Duchy of Warsaw in 1807.  After Napoleon's final defeat, Warsaw languished for a century under Russian control.
Warsaw was occupied by the Germans during World War I, and a Bolshevik offensive was turned back just outside the city in 1920.

	Warsaw served as the capital of a newly-independent republic during the interwar years.

World War II brought Warsaw unprecedented levels of suffering.  The initial Nazi assault killed 30,000, and a Jewish ghetto was established in October 1940.
Approximately 100,000 Jews had died by the time deportations began in July 1942.  The Nazis sent another 256,000 to Treblinka and other death camps.

	After an April 1943 uprising, the Nazis murdered the remaining 60,000 residents of the ghetto.

			Despite the Nazi repression, a Polish underground movement remained active in Warsaw.
As the Soviets neared the city, the Poles rose up against their oppressors in August 1944.

	However, the Red Army refused to intervene — or allow Allied aid — during the 63-day uprising.

The German retaliation completely leveled the city, and killed almost 200,000 Poles.  Afterwards, the Nazis expelled the remaining 600,000 Warsaw inhabitants.
After Soviet and Polish troops finally liberated Warsaw in January 1945, the returning residents quickly rebuilt the capital in the dull Socialist Realism style.

	However, many historical buildings were faithfully restored, especially in the Old Town.

Practical Information

We used Warsaw as the hub of our August 2004 vacation, spending a night in the Polish capital following our trip to Cracow, then returning after Riga and Vilnius.

• Hotels: We stayed at the Novotel in the city center during our first visit, but opted for the Marriott Courtyard out by the airport the second time around
• Restaurants: The Tandoor Palace claims to have the best Indian food in Poland, and who are we to argue?
• Transportation: We had trouble acquiring tickets for the Warsaw metro, until we realized that they can be purchased from local merchants.  As for the bus, it is a much cheaper way to get to and from the airport than taking a taxi.

	Cracow (Kraków)
	According to legend, Cracow was founded by Prince Krak in the 7th century, who secured this prime location overlooking the Vistula River after outwitting the Wawel dragon.

	A bishopric was established in Cracow in 1000, and the city became capital of Poland in 1038.

	Wawel Hill, just south of the Old Town, is crowned by a royal castle and cathedral.  It was home to Polish rulers for centuries — and is the final resting place of over a hundred kings, queens, and other Polish national heroes.

	Tatars sacked Cracow in 1241, destroying most of the buildings in the city.
		However, the city's fortunes soon revived, and the local Jagiełłonian University was founded in 1364.
	Cracow reached its peak in splendor beginning in the 14th century, and joined the Hanseatic League in 1430.
	Its most magnificent Gothic and Renaissance edifices were erected during these centuries.

	In 1596, however, King Sigismund III Vasa moved his capital to Warsaw.

	Although Cracow continued to enjoy a number of prerogatives, such as crowning ceremonies and royal funerals, the city slowly began to decline into provincial neglect.

In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko launched an ill-fated revolutionary uprising in Cracow.
	A year later, Cracow came under Austrian rule after the third Polish partition.

	During the Napoleonic era, Cracow was incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw.

The Congress of Vienna established Cracow as capital of an independent republic in 1815.

Cracow returned to Austria in 1846, but enjoyed more autonomy after 1867 reforms.

	After World War I, Cracow was reincorporated into the newly-established Polish republic.
		During World War II, the Nazis took care not to damage Cracow, declaring it an "urdeutche Stadt" (old German city).
	Consequently, Cracow was the only large Polish city to survive the war intact.  The city's 65,000 Jews weren't so lucky.
	Initially relocated to Podgórze, most were exterminated in the nearby Płaszów camp.

	The fate of Cracow's Jews was portrayed in Steven Spielberg's film, "Schindler's List".
Cracow never took to the Communist regime imposed by the Soviets after the war, and was neglected by the central authorities.  Despite the repression of the church, the local archbishop, Karol Wojtyła, was elected Pope John Paul II in 1978.

	Wieliczka Salt Mine
	Just south of Cracow lies a remarkable salt mine which has been in operation since the 13th century.  Over the years, miners have carved almost 250 kilometers of underground corridors through the salt deposits.

	The "tourist route" through the mine descends 327 meters below the surface.

	This portion of the mine accessible to the public represents just three percent of the total.

	Miners excavated over 2000 separate chambers, creating chapels and statues out of pure salt.

Practical Information

From Warsaw, we took the train down to Cracow, where we stayed for three nights.

• Hotels: The Hotel Polonia has a very convenient location, but it was noisy and insufferably hot in our room
• Restaurants: We ate at a number of restaurants (Grill, Azteca, U Zdzicha Gospoda) on or near the main market
• Transportation: We walked around Cracow, but took a local minibus to Wieliczka, and caught a regional bus from the main station out to Auschwitz

	Auschwitz
	In the village of Oświęcim, about 60 kilometers west of Cracow, the Nazis established an infamous concentration camp in April 1940.
Construction of nearby Birkenau began in October 1941, complete with gas chambers designed to resemble showers, and crematoria to incinerate the bodies.

	Approximately 40 labor camps were also established nearby, together comprising the largest of the Nazi death complexes.
Prisoners transported to Auschwitz from all over Nazi-occupied Europe were separated into three groups.			Some were sent directly to their deaths at Birkenau, while others were used as slave labor at industrial factories.
The rest — mostly twins and dwarfs — underwent medical experiments at the hands of doctors such as Josef Mengele.  While no accurate statistics were kept, a camp commandant admitted that as many as 2.5 million people were killed.

	While most of the victims were Jewish, Poles, gypsies, homosexuals, and POWs also perished.
The Soviets liberated the camps — and over 7,000 survivors — in January 1945, and Poland established a memorial museum the following year.

This page was first published 1 January 2005, and last updated 19 June 2005.